Summary

The traditional ePortfolio cannot effectively support collaborative learning which the learning today is moving toward to since the traditional ePortfolio systems only supports for the scope of a project, course, or organization, and compatible technologies. It still lacks of options of peer review, group collaboration, and community learning (Barrett, 2005; Jafari, 2004; McGrath. 2005; Zubizaretta, 2004). The recent ePortfolio systems that tried to meet the needs also lacks of effectiveness and efficiency because of design problems. In addition, emerging Web 2.0 technologies such as blogs, wikis, and podcasts can benefit classroom research, writing, and learning (Barrett, 2005; Richardson, 2006). In the dissertation, followed by the design theories, practices, and a design research methodology by Walls et al. (1992), the author developed an Information Systems Design Theory (ISDT) for the next-generation ePortfolio systems. The author also developed KEEP Social Learning Suite (SLS) based on an open-source Carnegie-funded ePortfolio project following the ISDT. The author evaluated system with survey study from participants who had experience with the system for a month. From the result, the perceived value and effectiveness of the system had been improved. It also show that the perceived value of the system are positively related to SLS participation and perceived ease of use.

Design theories and ISDT: Design theories which are tied to kernel theories from natural, social sciences or practice supports both design and development of an artifact. Unlike descriptive and normative theories, design theories are prescriptive that intend to satisfy human goals. ISDT is prescriptive, integrating normative and descriptive theories into design paths and they have the goal to produce effective information systems. In order to test the design theories, ISDT examines both the application of scientific theory and the use of the scientific method.

Social Constructive Learning theories (Bruner, 1966; Piaget, 1950; Vygotsky, 1978; Wood, 1998): Berger and Luckmann (1976) state that one’s knowledge of everyday life is structured in terms of relevance, is socially distributed, and “is possessed differently by different individuals and types of individuals” (pp. 46). Learning is an active, social process. For example, students learn through interacting with people in school, at home, in public, and online. They exchange information they know, and sometimes work on project together.

Communities of Practice (Lave, J. & Wenger E., 1991): “Communities of Practice” was first introduced to refer to “groups of people who share a concern or passion for something they do and learn how to do it better as they interact regularly.” (Wenger, 2007) Then, the term was extended to organizational and educational learning by Wenger (1998). He suggested that “learning should be primarily a practice of identity formation and mode of belonging, and not just accumulating skills and information.”

Social Presence Theory (Short, Williams and Christie, 1976): Social presence refers to a person’s awareness of the presence of others in a communication or interaction medium, and the interpersonal relationships. It is an important factor in a communication medium (e.g., an online class or an ePortfolio system). The social effects of a medium are principally caused by the degree of social presence which it supports to its users. 

Summary

The traditional ePortfolio cannot effectively support collaborative learning which the learning today is moving toward to since the traditional ePortfolio systems only supports for the scope of a project, course, or organization, and compatible technologies. It still lacks of options of peer review, group collaboration, and community learning (Barrett, 2005; Jafari, 2004; McGrath. 2005; Zubizaretta, 2004). The recent ePortfolio systems that tried to meet the needs also lacks of effectiveness and efficiency because of design problems. In addition, emerging Web 2.0 technologies such as blogs, wikis, and podcasts can benefit classroom research, writing, and learning (Barrett, 2005; Richardson, 2006). In the dissertation, followed by the design theories, practices, and a design research methodology by Walls et al. (1992), the author developed an Information Systems Design Theory (ISDT) for the next-generation ePortfolio systems. The author also developed KEEP Social Learning Suite (SLS) based on an open-source Carnegie-funded ePortfolio project following the ISDT. The author evaluated system with survey study from participants who had experience with the system for a month. From the result, the perceived value and effectiveness of the system had been improved. It also show that the perceived value of the system are positively related to SLS participation and perceived ease of use.

Design theories and ISDT: Design theories which are tied to kernel theories from natural, social sciences or practice supports both design and development of an artifact. Unlike descriptive and normative theories, design theories are prescriptive that intend to satisfy human goals. ISDT is prescriptive, integrating normative and descriptive theories into design paths and they have the goal to produce effective information systems. In order to test the design theories, ISDT examines both the application of scientific theory and the use of the scientific method.

Social Constructive Learning theories (Bruner, 1966; Piaget, 1950; Vygotsky, 1978; Wood, 1998): Berger and Luckmann (1976) state that one’s knowledge of everyday life is structured in terms of relevance, is socially distributed, and “is possessed differently by different individuals and types of individuals” (pp. 46). Learning is an active, social process. For example, students learn through interacting with people in school, at home, in public, and online. They exchange information they know, and sometimes work on project together.

Communities of Practice (Lave, J. & Wenger E., 1991): “Communities of Practice” was first introduced to refer to “groups of people who share a concern or passion for something they do and learn how to do it better as they interact regularly.” (Wenger, 2007) Then, the term was extended to organizational and educational learning by Wenger (1998). He suggested that “learning should be primarily a practice of identity formation and mode of belonging, and not just accumulating skills and information.”

Social Presence Theory (Short, Williams and Christie, 1976): Social presence refers to a person’s awareness of the presence of others in a communication or interaction medium, and the interpersonal relationships. It is an important factor in a communication medium (e.g., an online class or an ePortfolio system). The social effects of a medium are principally caused by the degree of social presence which it supports to its users. 

Improving sense of community : an action research on social software artifact for a graduate university setting 

Peter Ractham's dissertation used blogs and podcasting technology to increase the sense of community at Claremont Graduate University's School of Information Systems and Technology. The problem with the then-current sense of community at SISAT was that various space and time factors were preventing students from feeling as if they belonged to a close-knit community. Many students lived far away from campus and had to endure long commutes, or students had other time commitments that prevented them from interacting and involving themselves with their peers and classmates. To rectify this problem and strengthen the sense of community at SISAT, Peter Ractham built an artifact called “SISATSpace” using open source blogging technology. He used WordPress MU, the multiuser variant of the popular WordPress blogging software. SISATSpace's backbone consisted of a central SISAT blog wherein news of all department and university-wide activities and happenings were publicized on a regular basis. Beyond this, each and every student in the department was provided with his or own personal blog which he or she could update and customize. Podcasting technology would supplement the central SISAT blog, with regular podcasts falling into several categories: StudentCasts, FacutlyCasts, ResearchCasts, etc. Student and FacultyCasts were recorded interviews conducted with students and faculty within the department, and ResearchCasts were recordings of various lectures, seminars, and events taking place within the department. These podcasts would be regularly posted to the central blog to allow students to better get to know eachother, and to let them view events they might not have been able to attend.

To measure the effect SISATSpace had on SISAT's sense of community, Peter Ractham relied on McMillan and Chavis's (1986) definition of Sense of Community as a construct composed of four components:

• Membership: The extent to which a group member identifies themselves as part of the community. Attributes of membership include emotional safety, a sense of belonging and identification, personal investment, and a common symbol system.

• Influence: The extent to which an individual feels empowered that their actions exert some influence on the greater community.

• Integration and fulfillment of needs: The extent to which members feel rewarded by their participation in the community.

• Shared emotional connection: The definitive element for a true community.

McMillan (1996) later updates this model and replaces “influence” with “trust.” In order to empirically measure SISAT's sense of community, Peter Ractham used the School Sense of Community Index (SSCI) of Wright (2004). SSCI is based off of the Sense of Community Index (SCI) (Chipuer and Pretty, 1999; Long and Perkins, 2003), which was developed to empirically measurement sense of community within a group. Wright (2004) developed the SSCI to empirically measure sense of community within an educational community. The SSCI uses McMillan and Chavis's (1986) four elements of Sense of Community as listed above (combining “influence” and “trust” into a single element: “influence and trust”), whilst adding a fifth element, “sense of purpose,” which refers to the extent to which group members are willing to sustain community cohesion for individual and community outcomes.

As a guideline for developing a user-centric community information system, Peter Ractham used the Community-Centered Development approach of Lazar & Preece (1999). CCD is an iterative methodology that relies on user-centered design, contextual inquiry, and active participation by users throughout the design period, where designers must be persistent in understanding user concerns and requirements. There are five steps in the CCD process:

• Assessing community needs and analyzing user tasks

• Selecting technology and planning sociability

• Designing, implementing, and testing prototypes

• Refining and tuning sociability and usability

• Welcoming and nurturing the community

   

References:

Chipuer, H. M., & Pretty, G. M. H. (1999). A review of the sense of community index: Current uses, factor structure, reliability, and further development. Journal of Community Psychology, 27 (6), 643-658.

Lazar, J., & Preece, J. (1999). Implementing service learning in an online communities course. Paper presented at the 1999 Conference of the International Association for Information Management.

Long, D. A., & Perkins, D. D. (2003). Confirmatory factor analysis of the sense of community index and development of a brief SCI. Journal of Community Psychology, 31, 279-296.

McMillan, D. W. (1996). Sense of community. Journal of Community Psychology, 24(4), 315-325.

McMillan, D. W., & Chavis, D. M. (1986). Sense of community: A definition and theory. Journal of Community Psychology, 14 (1), 6-23.

Wright, S. P. (2004). Exploring psychological sense of community in living learning programs and in the university as a whole. Dissertation, Digital Repository at the University of Maryland, Maryland.

Leadership in multiuser online environments: The effect of user-generated content on leadership styles across crafting and creation environments in a multiplayer

by

Ugur T. Kaplancali, Ph.D., Claremont Graduate University, 2008

Summary

            Due to the popular of multiplayer game online today, players can learn from the contextual information embedded in the game. Multiuser game dynamics contribute to acquiring leadership skill, included building relationships, forming teams, and sharing authority with others. The research brought the existing theories on leadership, game-based learning, constructivist learning, and leadership in virtual world.  The literature review wrapped up the idea of IT and leadership, explaining both transactional and transformational leadership. It also covered the concept of using computer role playing game as effective tools for learning. Next, researcher connected the notion of leadership into the massively multiplayer online environment.

This study has three research questions. The first question asked what if any correlation exists between transactional and transformational leadership behaviors in multiplayer gaming environments. The second question explored about the impact of user’s freedom to create own content in online environments. Then, the last question raised the issue of whether leaders’ self-evaluation of self-efficacy and motivation to lead affects team performance in multiuser online environments.

The research methodology of this study used the experimental research design to explore and evaluate the effectiveness of multiuser online environments on leadership development for college students, using multiplayer online game called “infiniteams.” Through the experiment, the study observed the outcomes of a team building and leadership development exercise in a multiplayer online game environment.  Participants were also given the freedom of creating or adding content by using an online collaboration tool. After that, collected data was analyzed based on the researcher’s categorization of crafting and creation activities through adopting a transdisciplinary approach.

The research finding illustrated that an interaction between age, gender, and performance is presented in both crafting and creation environments. The study also showed that the leadership self-efficacy is an important predicting characteristic for team performance in multiuser online environments.